Flight Training Page
This page provides useful stuff for flying, flight
planning, and flight training. Some items may not be completely clear at
first, but throughout your training you will be exposed to all of these.
They are provided here for your studying enjoyment!
| Training materials: | Training articles: | |
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Takeoff and approach briefing cards Weight and balance- forms
and info
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Stalls Engine failure after takeoff (EFATO) Landings - this is from John Denker's "See how it flies" website. It is a must read! |
 Wing stalling, showing airflow separation over the top of the wing resulting in turbulent airflow and great reduction in lift. This turbulent air strikes the tail, causing the pre-stall buffet. |
Take off and Landing briefings
Every takeoff and landing is different! For example: Departing the long runway at an international airport like Entebbe with zero passengers is much different than departing a sloped upcountry strip like Kayonza with passengers on board. Your aircraft operating handbook provides performance charts to calculate the required takeoff and landing distances. These briefing cards are useful to supplement that data so that every takeoff and landing is safe, with no surprises. Experienced pilots consider these things before every takeoff and landing. New pilots can print these and keep them on their kneeboard as a helpful reminder.
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Takeoff
Briefing |
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| Runway length Wind Obstacles |
Slope Density altitude AircraftWeight |
Abort point Engine failure- options & plan |
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Planned
heading and altitude What is the departure end terrain? Where’s
lower terrain/better weather? Vx=60
Vy=65 Vg=65
Va=95 Load=360kg |
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Approach Briefing |
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| Runway
length Wind Altitude Slope |
Obstacles Surface Density altitude AircraftWeight |
Abort point Go-around- obstacles and options |
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Planned
heading and altitude Where’s
lower terrain/better weather? Vx=60
Vy=65 Vg=65
Va=95 Load=360kg |
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We learn many acronyms in flying- these are tools to help us to remember important things. Some of our favorites:
BUMPFICH- our before landing acronym.
B Brakes- test and parking brake off U Undercarriage- wheels down, the best way to land. M Mixture-enrichen; Mags- still on both P Prop-forward. Or, picture on downwind- level pitch, heading parallel runway, pattern altitude. F Fuel- on best tank (or both in 172), and gauges indicating correctly. I Instruments- indicating normal C Carb heat on, Cowl flaps closed (if equipped.) H Hatches and harnesses (doors and seatbelts) secure
HASELL- used before our training maneuvers:
Height- at least 3000 feet above ground level (agl).
Airframe- set up for the maneuver. for example, we use flaps for slow
flight.
Security- make sure there's nothing loose in the cockpit, seatbelts on,
doors shut, etc.
Engine- check instruments, mixture, carb heat. Very
important step! Don't start slow flight if your engine is already running on the
hot side!
Landing- where could you go if you had an emergency?
Lookout- for other
airplanes, birds, clouds.
Aviate, Navigate, Communicate-
This isn't an acronym, it's a memory aid. It
helps us remember how to prioritize our duties in ANY situation, emergency or
otherwise!
1)
Aviate- fly the airplane, no matter what! Then:
2)
Navigate- make sure you're pointed in the right direction. Then:
3)
Communicate- talk on the radio, if it isn't too big of a distraction to prevent
you from maintaining items 1 and 2.
Here's a scenario for an example- a pilot is departing kajjansi and has to turn off course to go around some weather. In doing so, the pilot looks at the map to visualize this new course. While distracted with the map, the airplane loses 200 feet of altitude and at the same time air traffic control calls to verify the number of passengers on board. Our pilot realizes the workload is increasing and he is getting behind, and remembers Aviate, Navigate Communicate! So he tells atc to "standby", climbs back and levels off at the desired altitude and verifies the airplane is trimmed for level flight. He verifies that he is on the desired heading, and that this heading will take him around the clouds. At this point, he calls air traffic control back. This is not to say that talking to air traffic control, or anyone else, on the radio is not important! It merely reminds us that flying the airplane and navigating always come first.
Cessna 172 Checklist
Familiarization with your aircraft and checklist will
increase efficiency. These don't need to be memorized -if they did, we
wouldn't need them in the airplanes! But running through these a few times will
help make your flights run more smoothly.
COCKPIT
1. Control Lock and Covers Remove and stow 2. Magneto Switches OFF, KEY OUT and visible 3. Master Switch ON 4. Fuel Cock ON BOTH 5. Flaps Fully DOWN 6. Lights ON and visual check 7. Lights OFF 8. Master Switch OFF 9. First Aid Kit and fire extinguisher In position 10. Aircraft documents Onboard and VALID
EXTERNAL AIRFRAME CHECK
1. Walk around and inspect aircraft
FUEL AND OIL
1. Dip both tanks, calculate endurance 2. Sample fuel until clear of water and particles 3. Check oil (min 6, max 8)
PASSENGER BRIEF
1. Seat belts 2. Doors 3. Air vents 4. Sick Bags 5. Emergency landing 6. Flight controls 7. Radio INTERNAL AND STARTING
1. Seat LOCKED, ADJUSTED 2. Hatches and Harnesses CLOSED, SECURE 3. Parking Brake ON 4. Master Switch ON 5. Rotating Beacon ON 6. Fuel Cock ON BOTH 7. Mixture Full and free movement, SET ½" LEAN 8. Throttle Full and free movement, SET ¼" OPEN 9. Carb Heat Full and free movement, SET COLD 10. Fuses IN, SECURE 11. Primer Prime as required, IN and LOCKED 12. Check area clear all around Call "CLEAR PROP" 13. Magneto Switches START 14. Throttle SET 1,000 RPM 15. Starter Warning Light OUT 16. Oil Pressure RISING within 30 seconds 17. Suction ABOVE 3" 18. Low Voltage Light OUT 19. Alternator Switch OFF, high voltage light on ON, high voltage light off 20. Radios ON, TUNED 21. Flight Instruments Unbroken, sensible readings and SET 22. Magnetos "Dead Cut" L - R - L - BOTH 23. Trim Full and free movement, SET to NEUTRAL 24. Flaps Check all stages, SET for TAKE OFF 25. Controls Full, free and correct movement 26. Radio Call for clearance as required
TAXI CHECKS
1. Brakes Throttle to idle, check efficiency 2. Flight instruments Compass, DI, ball and wings in left/right turns 3. Wind Aileron deflection as required POWER CHECK
1. Aircraft Into wind on level and clear surface 2. Brakes HARD ON 3. T's and P's GREEN 4. Area Behind Check clear of other aircraft, buildings and people 5. Throttle SET 1700 RPM, check aircraft NOT MOVING 6. Mixture LEAN for maximum RPM 7. Carb Heat to HOT RPM drop, SET COLD, RPM returns 8. Magnetos Mag drop < 125 RPM, difference L/R < 50 RPM 9. T's and P's GREEN 10. Throttle to IDLE Not below 600 RPM 11. Landing Light ON, ammeter shows discharge OFF, ammeter shows positive charge 12. Throttle SET 1,000 RPM
PRE TAKE OFF VITAL ACTIONS
1. Fuel ON and sufficient 2. Trim NEUTRAL 3. Flaps SET for TAKE OFF 4. Mixture SET 5. Throttle friction nut SECURE 6. Carb Heat COLD 7. Lights ON as required 8. Magnetos ON BOTH 9. Master Switch ON 10. Primer IN and LOCKED 11. T's and P's GREEN 12. Gyros SET 13. Hatches CLOSED and SECURE 14. Harnesses ON and SECURE 15. Controls Full and free movement 16. Parking brake OFF 17. Radio Departure call as required. 18. Wind Check direction, ailerons into wind EMERGENCY SELF BRIEFING
1. Engine fire during taxi 2. Brake failure 3. Engine failure during take off roll 4. Engine failure after take off TAKE OFF ROLL CHECKS
1. Power GREEN 2. T's and P's GREEN 3. Airspeed INCREASING
AFTER LANDING
1. Radio Report clear of runway 2. Flaps UP 3. Carb Heat COLD 4. Strobe Light OFF
ENGINE SHUT DOWN
1. Parking brake ON 2. Throttle SET 1,000 RPM 3. Magnetos "Dead Cut" L - R - L - BOTH 4. Lights OFF 5. Radios OFF 6. T's and P's GREEN 7. Mixture FULLY LEAN
ENGINE STOPPED
1. Magnetos OFF, KEY OUT 2. Master Switch OFF 3. Control Lock IN 4. Harnesses STOWED 5. Covers ON
The "Circuit" is a procedure to organize the flow of traffic around the airstrip. We do a lot of circuits in training because they are a great way to do many takeoffs and landings in a short time. When you are a new pilot, the circuit seems very busy because it seems like there is so much to do in a short time. Don't worry, every pilot goes through that feeling for a few flights. But before long a trip around the circuit will be a piece of cake! We have included these circuit diagrams and notes to help you become familiar with traffic pattern procedures.
Circuit Diagram - Just the basic speeds and power settings to use. Start here!
Detailed Circuit Diagram - The circuit diagram, with some added information. Go here when you are familiar with the basic circuit diagram.
Notes on circuits - Detailed description of almost everything to consider when going around the pattern!
Weight and Balance
Airplane weight is important because there is a limit to what can be safely loaded in the plane. Balance is important because the distribution of that weight affects the airplane's stability and safe handling. Your instructor will teach you how to compute the weight and balance for your aircraft so that you will never face an unpleasant discovery at the departure end of the runway.
A simple spreadsheet can be used for weight and balance calculation. A sample is given below, using data for 5X-BAR, a Cessna 172.. Other aircraft will have different empty weights and moments, so be sure to use the data for your aircraft.
"Arm" is simply the distance measured from the defined reference point, in the Cessna it is the firewall. So the pilot seat has an arm of 37- it is 37 inches from the firewall. "Moment" is the weight times the arm- so an object placed farther aft in the airplane has a greater moment and therefore a greater effect on the balance of the aircraft.
Weight is given in pounds, the arm is measured in inches,
and moment is therefore in inch*pounds. With an
airplane empty weight of 1459 pounds times an arm of 38.7 inches the empty
airplane moment is 56,516.
Simply add up the weight of you and your passengers (be honest!), baggage, and fuel. Fuel weighs 6 pounds per gallon, so multiply gallons by 6 to get the weight. There are four liters to a gallon, so if you measure your fuel in liters divide by four to get gallons.
When you are done, total your weight and moments. 5X-BAR's gross weight- the most it can weigh on takeoff- is 2300 pounds, so your weight cannot be over that. If you are, some people or baggage must be left behind.
Divide your total moment by your total weight to get the loaded aircraft's center of gravity (cg). It must be between 38 and 47 inches. (It may be as forward as 35 inches if lightly loaded, see weight and balance section of pilot operating handbook, or cg envelope chart below.)
Weight X Arm = Moment Moment/1000
Plane 1459 38.7 56516 56.5
Front seat 37
Back seat 73
Baggage 95
Fuel gal X 6= 48
Total
Gross Weight=
Centre of Gravity (total moment/total weight)=
CG limits: forward- 38, aft- 47.
Loading graph:
If you don't have a calculator you can still do weight and balance! Cessna includes a loading graph that allows us to calculate the moment/1000 for any weight we put in the plane. For example, 300 pounds in the rear seat gives a moment/1000 of 22 (or 22,000 inch*pounds.) We can then put the moments into the spreadsheet above.
Moment Envelope
once we have the total weight and moment (or moment/1000) we can use the graph below to determine if we are within acceptable limits:
CG Envelope
If we know what the actual CG is (total moment divided by total weight) we can use the cg envelope graph to determine if we are within limits:
What is Normal vs. Utility?
These are two different categories for certification. For pilots, they usually don't mean anything, except that if we are in the utility category (less than 2000 pounds and a relatively forward cg) we can, in theory, put a load of 4.4 G (4.4 times the force of gravity) on the airplane and not bend anything. Operations in the normal category are restricted to 3.8 Gs. Both limits are way too high for older aircraft, I personally don't want to fly a 30 year old airplane that ever does more than 1.5G, and normal flights will never get anywhere near that. A perfect, level steep turn at 45 degrees bank will put 1.4G on the airplane.
Effects of weight and balance
Weight: Being within limits is only part of the picture. A heavy airplane takes much more runway to takeoff and land. It's climb performance becomes frighteningly anemic. The wing will stall at a higher speed. Everything about a heavy airplane is less forgiving. So even if you are technically under gross weight, please consider what length of strip you have and if there are any obstacles. If there is ANY question, get the handbook out and calculate your takeoff distance, add a 50% safety margin, and review the takeoff briefing card.
Balance: Being outside the envelope makes you a suicidal test pilot, so we will limit our discussions to scenarios within the envelope:
Forward loadings will make the airplane nose-heavy on takeoff and landing- it will take a lot of elevator backpressure to rotate and to flare. However, once airborne the airplane will be very stable.
Aft loadings will make the airplane tail-heavy, which is easy to rotate and flare. But, it will not be so stable- it will not maintain it's trimmed attitude as well in the bumps. It will also not recover as well from a stall, which is why we generally do not do stalls with people in the backseat. The more aft the cg is the worse the stability. When you reach the aft limit, it is unacceptably unstable and Darwin takes over.
Below is link to a spreadsheet that will total your weight and calculate your center of gravity. Just enter your weight for fuel, front seats, back seats, and bags, all in pounds. (To convert kilos to pounds, divide kilos by 2.2. Liters to gallons, divide by 4.) Don't forget to enter fuel as weight, not volume. Other cells are locked. Cool, huh? But we still need to be able to do weight and balance with a pencil and paper, because we don't always have our laptops available.
Weight and balance spreadsheet- (excel file)
The Navlog is used for flight planning and navigation. Click the link for a handy word document that contains two kneeboard-sized navlogs. Your instructor will explain how to fill it out.
Radio Procedures
Talking on the radio can sometimes be intimidating or confusing to new pilots, but with a little practice everything will be perfectly clear. It is important to remember that the main reason we talk to anyone on the radio is to help keep everyone from hitting each other. With this in mind, it is always fair game to simply speak plain English on the radio.
It is not possible to cover every possible radio scenario, but we have put together a little script which covers most of the calls made on a 1) flight in the circuit, 2) a flight to kisubi training area, and 3) a cross country flight. You can practice these on the ground so that in the airplane, when you are busy, things will be easier.